Q: What are the major denominations in Judaism--and how can I keep them straight?
A: I can think of many ways to respond to this question, but I think it would be most helpful to offer two answers, one pertaining to the world as a whole; the other pertaining to North America and, to a lesser extent, Israel, where what Jews tend to call movements or streams have proliferated. (“Denominations” tends to sound rather Christian to many Jewish ears.)
Regarding world Jewry, it’s important to recognize that before the 18th century in Europe--and until today in many places--there was really no denominationalism in Judaism, at least as we understand it today. There were certainly sects and schisms and arguments, but there was no Orthodox or Reform, and certainly no Conservative, Reconstructionist, or Renewal Jews. Rather, there was a wide variety of Jewish practice based on geography, broadly divided into Ashkenazic (European) and Sephardic (literally Spanish, but spread across North Africa and Arab lands, including the Land of Israel). It’s important to note that these two broad regions experienced modernity very differently, which is why Reform Judaism, and after it Orthodox Judaism, are primarily European phenomena. It was there, in Central Europe, in the 18th century that a smallish group of Central European Jews decided that Jewish practice required reformation.
The European reformers modeled themselves after the Protestant Reformation, and emphasized decorum in religious services, prayers and sermons in the vernacular language, a streamlined liturgy that emphasized the ethical and rational aspects of the tradition, all with the idea that Judaism should take its place alongside the church as a dignified and respectable religion.
Like the reaction against the Reformation in a Christian context, traditionalists within Judaism pushed back hard against the reformers, even to the point of outlawing practices, like the use of organs in synagogues, that had begun to spread slowly across Europe. The founders of this anti-reform movement called themselves, somewhat misleadingly, Orthodox (correct belief), perhaps in conscious or unconscious imitation of Orthodox Christians who objected to the theological innovations of the Reformation. In a Jewish context, however, theology is much less determinative than practice and communal belonging in a person’s choice of congregation. Orthodoxy, as many scholars have pointed out, might be better called Orthoprax (correct practice).
Today, this basic division between Reform (or Progressive, as it is known outside North America) and Orthodoxy persists, although Progressive Judaism, alongside other liberal movements, is much smaller in Israel and the rest of the world than Orthodoxy, which in many countries is simply the default.
When Jews came to this country, they imbibed the particular religious spirit of the United States, which I would describe as congregational. In this country, without an established religion, everyone who didn’t like the church they grew up in could join another one or, as happened with remarkable frequency, simply start a new one. In this way, local custom, which had always been important in Judaism, became paramount, and so although there are certainly points of contact among synagogues that belong to a particular movement (prayer books, for instance, or a general attitude towards Jewish law), each synagogue developed its own culture and style of worship.
It’s also important to know that for the great waves of Jewish migration to this country came first from Central and then from Eastern Europe, thus bringing the general European division between Reform and Orthodox to these shores. This is not to say that Sephardic Jews did not arrive in America--indeed the first synagogues in this country were founded by Spanish and Portuguese Jews--but the vast majority of American Jews descended from European ancestors.
Many of those Jews found that they felt at home neither in the traditionalist Orthodox synagogues that tried to recreate the religious life of the old country nor in the Reform synagogues that felt too alien. Thus arose what became known as Conservative Judaism, an attempt to adapt traditional practice to modern realities. During the second third of the twentieth century, Conservative Judaism was the dominant address for American Jews, but affiliation has dropped off precipitously as the movement responded slowly to the challenges of postmodernity: intermarriage,, feminism, gay rights, etc. Now many Jews, even observant Jews, do not affiliate with any movement, which has created many challenges for movement institutions.
So here is a short review of some of the major streams of American Judaism:
Reform Jews trace their roots back to the European reformers of the 18th Century. So-called “Classical Reform” emphasized prayer in the vernacular, decorum at services (rabbis would wear academic gowns at services), and engagement with social justice. More contemporary Reform maintains the emphasis on social justice, but has engaged with a more Hebrew-oriented liturgy and less formal worship. It also has spearheaded outreach to intermarried couples and encourages conversion. The Reform movement was the first North American movement to ordain female clergy.
Orthodox Judaism developed in response to European Reform, and neither was a major component of Judaism in the rest of the world until both arrived in North America in the 19th century. Although there are many branches of Orthodoxy, with degrees of observance and levels of engagement with non-Jews (and non-Orthodox Jews), all affirm the primacy of Torah and Jewish law and many reject any innovations in practice. Recently, feminism has made inroads in modern Orthodoxy, and we are beginning to see the ordination of female clergy, even if most do not go by the title of rabbi.
Conservative Judaism arose in the late 19th century as an attempt to find a traditional form of practice that would be open to historical change. Conservative synagogues offered traditional worship services with limited changes, including nods to feminism and the reality of suburban life: in a major break with tradition, Conservative Jews were permitted to drive to synagogue (but only to synagogue!) on Shabbat. In recent decades, many Conservative congregations have declined as their more traditional members migrate out to independent congregations and Orthodoxy, while their more liberal members join Reform synagogues (especially if they or their children marry non-Jews) or opt out of religious Jewish life entirely.
Reconstructionist Judaism is a truly American movement, founded in the forties and based on the ideas of Mordechai Kaplan, who emphasized Jewish civilization and a rationalist belief system. A product of an Orthodox upbringing and a professor at the Conservative Jewish Theological Seminary, his ideas have had an outsized influence on American Judaism, even if only a small percentage of Jews identify as Reconstructionist. Today, Reconstructionism is the most liberal of the movements, and is particularly welcoming to gays, lesbians, and trans people.
Independent minyanim (congregations) are now a fixture in most Jewish population centers and consist of traditional Jews, many brought up in Conservative and Orthodox households. Many are egalitarian, but others retain the Orthodox practice of separating men and women during prayer. The worship experience tends to be very traditional, and most such congregations do not have a rabbi (although many rabbis may be members) and do not offer a school, life-cycle events, or other services of a synagogue.
Finally, Jewish Renewal (or Neo-Hasidic Judaism) is an attempt to merge the revivalist, mystical, and pietistic aspects of Hasidism with modern sensibilities, especially feminism and environmental activism. Neo-Hasidic Jews identify Rabbi Zalman Schacter-Shalomi as their founder. A former Lubavitch Hasid, Reb Zalman (as he was popularly known), moved away from traditionalist circles and engaged with the wider world of spirituality (especially Buddhism). In this way, he was able to “renew” many Jewish practices, making them palatable and meaningful to contemporary Jews while unapologetically borrowing practices from other traditions (especially meditation and mindfulness). Like Kaplan, Reb Zalman had an influence that goes far beyond Jewish Renewal congregations.
I should also mention that there is a proud traditional a Jewish secularism (an outgrowth, by and large, of European secularism) that split into two main streams: Zionists, with an emphasis on the Hebrew language; and Bundists, who focused on Yiddish language and culture (a good example is the Workmen’s Circle, of which there is a branch in Brookline). Both streams were highly attuned to progressive politics, a rationalist worldview, and a serious mistrust of rabbis and religion. To this day, a majority of Israelis dentify as secular, even though Orthodox religious parties control a growing percentage of seats in the Knesset.
So where do we at Danesh-100 Centre St. fit into this picture? I should say that I myself do not fit comfortably into any of these categories, but I’m closest--by both temperament and education--to Neo-Hasidism. As the rabbi and chaplain of a pluralistic community, I do my very best to meet the needs of the broadest range of residents, so our services contain elements from all of these traditions. Furthermore, I am open to all feedback, so if there is something you would like to see me add or subtract from our services, please come by and have a conversation with me!
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